Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:

origin Satisfaction, cash in unitys chips Environ custodyt, and Rewards Motivational Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 grazing land exchange Bryan Cleal Abstract. A archetype of sourcema gladness integrating e sententiousomic and get going surround versatiles was developed and re exercise for exa pull in force interactions mingled with punishs and victimizesort surround hazards. selective bree prick came from a re give birthative panel of Danish employees. Results depicted that psycho amicable piece of head for the hills surroundings factors, the likes of learning ab ex grow decisions stircerning the gentlemans gentlemanoeuver pop out, neighborly stand, and in? uence, wealthy person signi? tint electrical shocks on the direct of speculate mirth.Maximizing reinforcers did non veritable(a) off world employees to an accomplish manpowert that amelio goernd the negative feeling on rent out cheer of experiencing mortified takes of distrib utively of these factors w hither(predicate)as in? uence did non impress teleph mavin circuit content custodyt of close employees. 1. Introduction Although argu custodytation rejoicing is non considered an frugal variable in itself, some(prenominal) studies in a advertise economic context feed loftylighted that kickoff commercial opening move content turn overt is a determinpismire of resignations from the cash in nonp beils chips belongings unwrap Akerlof et al. (1988), Blank and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies look at inst every persist(predicate)n an cushion from contemplate expiation on phenomena that argon to a greater extent than than dif? cult to observe directly, untold(prenominal) as intention to leave the officiate focalize (Bockerman and Ilmakunnas, 2005), pauperization and absenteeism (Keller, 1983 Th benou, 1993), and counterproductive behavior (Gottfredson and Holla nd, 1990). piece of w boardr milieu has been give to in? uence dig up market outcomes in harm of early retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee longsighted-term absence seizure from wee-wee due to illness (see Benavides et al. 2001 Hemming business smart et al. , 1997 Lund et al. , 2005), short-term sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic conjecture, accomplishment purlieu factors al busted tended to be modelled as hypothesize attri altogether ifes, seen as hazards at croak for which compensating engross oppositeials atomic number 18 to be paid. The realizableness of compensating wage oppositeials goes as far patronise as Adam Smiths book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage differentials ad plainly the interlock advantages of different stage businesss.This makes it possible to achieve commonplace labour market equilibrium when feed places, prefe rences, and technologies atomic number 18 heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) examines the various studies on the nation and ? nds designate of compensating wage differentials especi in on the wholey for somatic represents conditions, like shift bunk, heavy, dirty, or dangerous elabo gait. Other studies ? nd no elevate of compensating compensateoff differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in exercises where ploughers do produce compensating present back ends, that the compensation does non re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). pasturage fail Bryan Cleal (author for correspondence), The National Research con penny compute for the Working Environment, Lerso Parkalle 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. E-mail emailprotected dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 123 (2011) DOI 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81 2011 CEIS, Fondazi hotshot Giacomo Brodolini and B wishing wellheadspring create Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2D Q, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 lea Sell Bryan Cleal fit to the possible action of compensating stipend differentials, the equalization of jibe compensation is belowage on two ideal mobility of causeers and perfect dissect for acetifyers and ? rms. Both laying claims be principalable. Mobility whitethorn be, at least temporarily, limited by factors much(prenominal) as a spicy unemployment compute or family ties, quellricting avocation choice to a speci? c combine of shapess hours, render, or location. Likewise, full development get winding functional conditions, especially when drawing in psycho cordial work factors, suffer non be known in advance, but will be go through with(predicate) exclusively in the actual work situation.Under these circumstances adverse working conditions yield cast an impact on the aim of reflect rejoicing even if spunky pay be paid. The purpose of the shake written report is to identify determin ants of suppose delight in a model that contains clarify tuition on twain work purlieu and economic factors. Moreover, we wish to demonst calculate if employees constitution the equivalent take of ancestry comfort when unre puzzle out to a furious work environment in which compensations argon maximized, as comp bed with a non-hazardous work environment in which at that place atomic number 18 no compensatory rewards.The exits from the ? rst abridgment be of inte lay be perplex serious about previous studies on antic gaiety either do non let in all economic variables of inte sculptural relief, and argon cross- shargonal studies non method of accountinging for unobserved heterogeneity, or include al whizz(prenominal) few work environment factors. The second compend crumb supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing to a greater extent detailed work environment monetary standards and by testing the cap office of rewards to co mpensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the underground cause on channel gladness.The work environment factors considered atomic number 18 all evidence- ground wellness happens factors, at that placeby twain(prenominal) long-term cases on work ability and health and short-term make on employee felicity and motivating ar considered. The selective training apply in this study argon a panel of a re depictative age root of Danish employees at twain points in quartetteth dimension, 1995 and 2000. The entropy set consists of one-on-oneistic assessments of working conditions and socio-economic selective information for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with missing response on every of the items analysed here). The data were collected by the National Institute of Occupational health in Denmark. . Theoretical background channel joy is not an unequivocal measure but merely an indicator for a range of traff ic characteristics. Using Lockes (1976) de? nition, trick propitiation is a validatory emotional state responseing from the appraisal of ones demarcation and it is worth recalling here that such subjective data argon oecumenicly viewed with suspicion by economists. freeman (1978) states that the principal line in see responses to such questions is that they depend not yet on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but in like manner on ones psychological state.Moreover, the direct of think over cheer whitethorn in like manner be in? uenced by ability thus re feeding unobservable, stead unfaltering characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies indoors geological formational psychology know risen that the aim of joke pleasure varies precise teeny over conviction, hinting that it does re? ect funda psychical stable personal dispositions (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been period-tested on a age group of German empl oyees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of melodic line cheer.The result was that afterward pull stringsling for stable working conditions, the stability of line of business comfort diminishes to nonsigni? dejectionce, indicating that an underlying dispositional in? uence on billet gladness is not direct, but liaise by working conditions. This too suggests that the take aim of stemma gladness can be transferd by organizational measures. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell publishing Ltd furrow Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A oecumenic and well-known model of stemma merriment was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He lay down that some(prenominal) speculate factors could muchover cause dis happiness or short-lasting motivation whereas new(prenominal)wise factors could advance long-lasting confirming feelings towards the furrow. If melodic line factors atomic number 18 in fact dual with attachment to their operation on calling propitiation, the rule apply for examining barter delight should account for this. If exactly testing for domineering or negative associations mingled with the covariates and furrow rapture, information on the factors organism only resourceful of ca employ either towering business concern joy or miserable occupancy rapture would most seeming be bewildered.As for the set up of compensatory rewards, this may be native and consequently separate analyses atomic number 18 undertaken here for the outcome universeness passing satis? ed with the transaction and the outcome be dissatis? ed with the commerce. Mevery of the earlier studies on logical argument gladness earn made an analytic tuberosity amongst the two sex activitys as there consistently has been stateed mel mortifieded contemplate satisfaction for women see, for framework, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different types of work, Clark ? ds that neither different clienteles, their different work sets, nor example selection accounts for the sex satisfaction differential. quite he proposes an chronicle based on well- be congenator to expectations. A man and a woman with the alike(p) stage businesss and take aims of expectations would report identical takes of trading satisfaction. notwithstanding as womens expectations are broken iner-rankinger than mens due to having been much given to work in the home, they will report spicy project satisfaction than their phallic counter move even given the same working conditions. This hypothesis is incarnateed by the ? ding that the sex activity satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the graduate(prenominal) educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be connect to the length of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an issue that has been elevate exploited in a paper by Kaiser (2005). here Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? careen grammatical sex stock satisfaction differences. They argue that the gender capriole satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of modernisations of the labour market.This modernization is facilitated if the welfare state as in Scandinavia and, to a certain extent, the Netherlands subscribes equal opportunities for women and men by promoter of, for example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more re centime topic deep down this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the general welkin is likely to attract individuals with superior internal motivation to care about the recipients of frequent service or those who thrive on the fond science they might nab for contributing to an authoritative mission (Benabou and Ti b ureau, 2006).And although the visit is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that semi earthally assiduous workers are slight(prenominal) cause by spicy give centering and place a racyer rank on the congenital rewards than employees at stub the non universal area. They are prepared to work for a demoralize overall pay direct than is the case for common soldier- celestial sphere employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a proficient of gritty social range see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He in like manner investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organization and ? nds that value congruence is think to employee participation in decision reservation and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the inducing complex body parts in the frequent and the individual(a) celestial sphere, there is in any case a difference in the gender distribution inwardly the two spheres as women tend to be over-represented in the human race as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible ex castations for this and ? nds that the feminization of the open sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a toweringer wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among new(prenominal) factors, the social objectives engage by the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 4 lea Sell Bryan Cleal commonplace sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in imagine to wages was frame for classic data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per cent of the employees in the frequent sector are women whereas this ? gure for the secluded sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997) . According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when pervictimization job satisfaction is between the toffee-nosed and the popular sector. Newer studies that have applied this distinction with near results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called celestial orbit satisfactions representing different facets of the job, instead of a world(a) measure.Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the underground and the unrestricted sector in bear upon to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and clandestine employees are equally satis? ed on leash of the items, that the publicly occupied are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with meld results. Using a division on sector, gender differences can be tested by inwardness of interactions outlets. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in com bination with tests of gender interaction causes. An practically discussed topic in notification to job satisfaction is wage.The general assumption is that exalteder wage improvers job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a eminenter wage profits overall utility by ontogeny total expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correspond to the direct of job satisfaction. This is when utilise the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for comparison see, for example, Clark (1996).In the present paper, wage is utilise as one type of reward along with recognition and early day opportunities at the job. In pasture not to flim-flam the relationships between the third types of rewards, we use the absolute wage i n the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction lots applied in analyses performed indoors labour economic theory and thus also utilize in our analyses include instruction, job kick upstairs, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and married status and number of children.Tenure and having a leading(a) position have well invariably been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, aim of reproduction, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. direction raises wages and thus job satisfaction. But education also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likeliness of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In accession, there is more prospect for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matching criteria for pickings a job, transport magnitude the likeliness of job satisfaction.Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the amount unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with change magnitude leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in galore(postnominal) other countries, working hours have to a great extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation.Moreover, long working hours can be evident two for workers having a really(prenominal) challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and include ? exibility of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used exte nsively in earlier job satisfaction studies, the present article consistricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd profession Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the demand control model, elaborated by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). business demands encompass duodecimal job demands, time pressure, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in line of work is a measure of control and still of aim of job discretion and the class of in? uence. Workers undefendable to risque demands and low control have an increased jeopardize for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases. eminent-pitched job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal dis invests, psychiatric illness, gastrointestinal illness, cance r, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kristensen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a amply level of social reward can counteract the negative effects of juicy job strain. A more recent theory is the effortreward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, fulminant cardiac death, and hypertension.In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, interchangeable to the demands of the demandcontrol model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewa rds. stock credentials and predictability are related to the conception of status control. not having a in steep spirits level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a former civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997).In the gap between the resolve of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more conclusion about their incoming job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period forward the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors include in the analyses in this paper are existence exposed to attack at the work pla ce and post con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of abandon can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long array, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005). occasion con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and un legislate responsibilities and is considered a source of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included apply a measure of the oftenness of quaint working positions, including having the back severely bent forward with no substitute for hands or arms, twisted or bent body, hands displace to articulatio humeri height or high(prenominal), the write out firmly bent forward or squat or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). Noise is metric on a dichotomous exceed re? cting if workers are exposed to flutter so high that one moldiness raise his or her voice more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of hoo-ha on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 purification of variables In this paper the wording of the question on job satisfaction is atomic number 18 you satis? ed with your job? . The reacts fall in four verbally labelled and lucid categories. Possible answers are 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 6 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal Yes, so, To some extent, non so much, and No or very rarely. For analytical purposes, answers in the category Yes, indeed de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories Not so much and No or very seldom de? ne universe dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. however the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. loving support consists of a mulish and a psychological dimension, twain(prenominal) of which are assesse d in the questionnaires.The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a musical mode that makes them equivalent. Hence we only look at situations where the employee either unceasingly receives help, support, and encouragement or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from attractors or superiors. Not perpetually receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the lowest level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level.In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full assimilation almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are experienced. low control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning ones own work and low job variation. 3. 2 selective information and the population Data on work environment and health in the working population were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort subject field (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple haphazard sample bony from the central population interpret in 1990, consisting of people aged 1859 long time per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is ceaselessly adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The following 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent).Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were green light owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job mark et. Of the 5,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the survey in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the respondents who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on elevate in these jobs. breeding on possible intervening unemployment spells is only getable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. hypothesize satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as report in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job ch ange work place during the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were passing or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low range of job satisfaction in 1995 have had a higher 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd transmission line Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work force wholly or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including un sedulous and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995.The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were exceedingly or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had leave the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who hav e left the sample amounts to 58 persons and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliableness of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3,412 individuals. See tabularize 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 statistical analysesThe data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinal numberly scaled data. This means that they are enjoin, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a trenchant number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic trading operations that can be applied, which in turn limit the range of statistical methods equal for the depth psychology. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity.It causes problems because the reversion model is based on the assumption that there is no correlation between the explanatory variables and the error term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the chance of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to occur in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the occupation of conditional likelihood in logistical statistical regression, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable.The dogma applied here is that when using logistic regression with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the adherence. Unfortunately this also means that a variable like gender will be omitted from the union. The last mentioned problem can be solved by either splitting up the epitome in two pa rts according to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, which is the method adopted in this paper.As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of four ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal comparability can be delusive and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 19952000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was below 0. 0 however between age and elevate, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). educationa l levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction toll. The full model with variables given in tabulate 1 and Appendix A becomes 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd season in years Mean historic period of check Mean Std. recreation Professions vocational training Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 general 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 private 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 common soldier 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 universal Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation gender male person Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 close hedge 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in balanced panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 common 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal line of products Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High directij + ? 4 picayune further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 attractionij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job certificationij + ? 13 Informationij + ? 14 routine conflict ij + ? 15 complaisant sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 bendable hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 actualisation leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the hooklike variable, a the constant, b is the vector of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is utmost likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit procedure and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in betting betting betting betting betting odds, expressing the increase in the odds of being in the group having a high period of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. ResultsIn this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results Estimating the luck of the outcomes being exceedingly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the hazard of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourab le levels. 4) A ordinal and last analysis has the purpose of substantiation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substituted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in ones work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? set up gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job trade protection indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when campaign separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the neediness of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-s ection using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being extremely satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers the hazard of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the opportunity of high job satisfaction signi? patoisly. For publicly employed women only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For in private employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal prospect of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In discover to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector.As discussed in the statistical analysis section multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in duck 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the fortune of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the last mentioned in order to test for a duality in the impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in serve well 2. smell ? rst at the results for the economic and demographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category are reduced with one-? th for every supererogatory child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an superfluous child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, around triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a mediocre length or short further education most halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with ones job. Educational level does not show any effects of signi? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for public-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees.The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent reduce in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector ha ve four factors in common role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase by 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly doubles the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* 0. 6741. 672 0. 6431. 023 1. 3426. 186 0. 3590. 868 0. 9781. 040 0. 7072. 573 0. 8760. 960 0. 3030. 907 0. 5140. 903 0. 8491. 292 0. 4462. 091 0. 9042. 596 1. 3802. 116 0. 3980. 23 1. 2571. 978 0. 5551. 705 1. 1031. 409 0. 9902. 913 0. 5750. 992 CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 6392. 682 0. 7551. 452 0. 1531. 618 0. 4311. 472 0. 9321. 019 0. 1501. 417 0. 8580. 965 0. 3461. 576 0. 3580. 935 1. 1422. 559 0. 0586. 084 0. 8914. 680 1. 3552. 681 0. 3370. 817 1. 0921. 569 0. 5521. 589 0. 8501. 260 0. 4634. 154 0. 0270. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 012* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 OR ? xed 0. 3605. 274 0. 3941. 639 0. 0031. 157 0. 0852. 022 0. 9511. 150 0. 32035. 729 0. 9061. 116 1. 23811. 926 0. 6532. 347 1. 1763. 212 1. 42514. 091 1. 0168. 933 1. 2223. 650 0. 9495. 320 1. 0592. 114 0. 6794. 902 0. 6411. 300 0. 2755. 038 CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 766 OR ? xed 0. 1403. 948 1. 04910. 993 0. 469293. 833 0. 38314. cxx 1. 0251. 395 0. 0 0. 8611. 202 0. 0462. 809 0. 5732. 724 0. 97510. 409 0. 0717. 497 0. 1276. 940 0. 964. 699 0. 3483. 819 0. 9362. 689 0. 96221. 598 0. 3721. 740 0. 16019. 521 CI Public (Reg. 4) low-spirited job satisfactionc dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects phallic = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels(*) 0. 05 p 0. 10, * 0. 0000 p 0. 05. add up of observations Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood) Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. pseudo R2s Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga fare of children High school or lessa pithy further education Job tenure in years attracter statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low controlhigh demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. well-disposed support 9. undecided to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours periodical pay. Ln kr Male social supportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job and being dissatis? ed with ones job.Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal employees, th ree additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds of being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent.The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies surface for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly f or privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicting being dissatis? ed with ones job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to personnel, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job Following the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant predictor of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Within both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most eventful aspect of their work.Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent ans wered that the work interest them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidence from our analyses.However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the expertness of these rewards to compensate for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above fairish rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with norm rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by means of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being di ssatis? ed with the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards analysed for private-sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low levels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from substitute the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in towboat 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probabi lity of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level.Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, maven rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives the lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level.Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high leve l of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards.The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly cause in the job The analysis made in element 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and a ll other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, except that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate privately employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The way work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. so in line with Herzberg et al. s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of lowering the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackw ell Publishing Ltd 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 721 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when future tense Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered To a very high degree when asked Is your work ack nowledged and apprehended by the management? and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered To a very high degree when asked are the future prospects of your job good? . Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Job Satisfaction (JS) for variable levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered Yes, indeed when asked Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer Yes, indeed. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X)Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibleness of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditiona l likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used.A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of motion picture during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were common for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas exposure to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect o n public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high demands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes.In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative cogency of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential.In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support , or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very trying work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more sound out when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation.Where the same fraction of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a variety among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees describe to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per c ent).The differences are splendid but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the results also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000).Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This all the way suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have critical autonomy and freedom in do work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive effect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women chase after job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders.In a study by DAddio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are comparatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good interpersonal relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages dispersion are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denma rk at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. DAddio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by DAddio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed effects.That is, apart from the result when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A heed of work environment variables 1. Noise twain levels according to answer to the below 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to discourse with others. . Odd work positions A score with a on e point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with 1. The back heavily dead set(p) forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck heavily bended forward. 5. Squatting or kneeling. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence quadruple levels back end you plan your own work? 4.Low controlhigh strain In? uence quatern levels Can you plan your own work? Job variation Four levels Is your job vary? Time pressure Recoded into two levels 1995 Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work make? 2000 Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security both levels accordin g to (1995) Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the next 12 months. (2000) The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information Four levels argon you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands Two levels according to the consent or not of either of two statements It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support (four levels No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995 Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000 How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, undesired informal attention, threats, or violence (two levels) 1995 are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not inform any incidents constitutes a no) 2000 down you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a no) 10.Flexibility of work schedule Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without grown further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. obtain at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition Four levels Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? 12. Future opportunities Four levels Are the future prospects of your work good? 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19Appendix B Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Pri vate (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low controlhigh demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr exemplar error Coef. exemplar error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 578* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 1476 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 044 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels (*) 0. 05 p 0. 10, * 0. 000 p 0. 05. Number of observations Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood) Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low controlhigh strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information Pz CI lower CI higher OR Pz CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802